FSST

This blog is a collaborative effort between the Foundation for Student Science and Technology (formerly the Canadian Young Scientist Journal) and Science.gc.ca. Our aim is to offer an interactive platform where Canadian students can talk about their passions, challenges and ideas on how to further pursue scientific interests and education. We welcome new contributors -- if you are interested please contact us at information@science.gc.ca.


Monday, July 25, 2016

The Blue Brain Project

Author: Brian Hyung


The Blue Brain Project is an initiative by Henry Markram and his team of researchers to digitally recreate the immature rat’s neocortical column. Backed by €1-billion in funding, Markram hopes to eventually expand this project into recreating the entire human brain. However, as seen in his paper, there are many problems and shortcomings even with just the rat cortex. This project involves many different parts, from digitally modeling different neuron types, accurately representing synaptic transmission, and more. However, this article will only describe the aspect of how the team tried to accurately represent neuronal and synaptic connections, as well as the potential problems that arise from their method.

The Blue Brain project relies on a 5-rule algorithm to reconstruct the connectome of a rat neocortical column by predicting synapse quantity and location (Figure 1). Initially, Rule 1 assumes that all neurons are potentially connected and Rule 2 states that the location of synapses is established by incidental apposition of neurons.The next three rules were measures taken to reduce the number of synaptic connections (pruning) such that they fit actual experimental data. When they used just rules 1 and 2, they found that their synaptic density was 18 times greater than reported data. Therefore, they implemented Rule 3, which states that actual synapses form at only a fraction of these potential synaptic locations. Thus a number of connections were cut (general pruning). However, now, they found that their model had too many connections that were made up of few synapses. Studies have shown that most connections are made of multiple synapses.To address this issue, they performed multi-synaptic pruning, where they removed all of the connections that were made of too few synapses. This used Rule 4, which states that connections always involve multiple synapses.Yet still they had a problem of having synaptic density that was four times too great. Therefore, the last step, Rule 5 was implemented, which was based on a finding that only a fraction of the multi-synaptic connections are functionally active.Therefore, a fraction of the remaining connections were cut (plasticity pruning), and these were put into a reserve pool for later uses, such as structural plasticity. These three pruning stages were able to reproduce several experimental findings in the digital brain models and was deemed accurate by the research team.

However, this algorithm contains shortcomings, especially because the rules for neuronal connections are not as simple as it is presented in cases where synapses form at incidental appositions of neurons. Processes such as functional specificity of local synaptic connections can contribute to connection specificity. Ko et al. (2011) showed that this occurs in the visual cortex of mice, where neurons with similar responses to stimuli formed more than twice as many connections between them, compared to neuron pairs differing in response. It is possible that functional biases of connectivity are also present within the rat neocortical column, although experiments are required to verify this. Implementing this process can improve the algorithm’s considerations of connection specificity when the parameter value is unavailable. The notion that synaptic specificity can differ between local regions reveals that neuronal functions can significantly vary among subnetworks in the column. How local connectivity is organized to produce specific neuronal functions remains to be discovered, but it is one of the possible questions for the Blue Brain project to answer in the future.

This algorithm takes into account many aspects of neuronal connectivity, but it is not robust enough in its current state to accurately predict unknown connectomes in the brain. The design fails to fully encompass the complex process of synaptic specificity, whose mechanisms are not yet well defined. In addition, there are other major components that are unaccounted for such as gap junctions, which are important structures required for electrical neuronal signaling. Since changes in synaptic specificity can translate into different neuronal functions and possibly even behaviours, it must be better integrated into the algorithm to improve digital reconstructions of the brain.

Works Cited:

Ko, H., Hofer, S. B., Pichler, B., Buchanan, K. A., Sjöström, P. J., &Mrsic-Flogel, T.D. (2011). Functional specificity of local synaptic connections in neocortical networks. Nature, 473, 87-91. doi:10.1038/nature09880

Reimann, M.W., King, J. G., Muller, E.B., Ramaswamy, S., &Markram, H. (2015). An algorithm to predict the connectome of neural microcircuits. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 9, 1-18. doi: 10.3389/fncom.2015.00120

Markram H., Muller E., Ramaswamy S., Reimann M.W., Abdellah M., Sanchez C.A., Ailamaki A., … Schürmann F. (2015). Reconstruction and simulation of neocortical microcircuitry.Cell, 163, 456-492.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.029.

Editors: Ariel Shatsky, Justine Baek


Le projet Blue Brain

Auteur: Brian Hyung


Le projet Blue Brain est une initiative de Henry Markram et son équipe de chercheurs pour recréer numériquement la colonne du néocortex d’u rat immature. Soutenu par 1 milliard € en financement, Markram espère éventuellement étendre ce projet pout inclure la récréation de l'ensemble du cerveau humain. Cependant, comme on le voit dans son journal, il y a beaucoup de difficultés impliquées, même avec simplement le cortex de rat. Ce projet comprend de nombreuses parties différentes, de la modélisation numérique de  types de neurones différents, à la représentation précise de la transmission synaptique, et plus. Toutefois, cet article ne décrit que la façon dont l'équipe a essayé de représenter avec précision les connexions neuronales et synaptiques, ainsi que les problèmes potentiels qui découlent de leur méthode.

Le projet Blue Brain repose sur un algorithme à 5 règles pour reconstruire le connectome d'une colonne du néocortex de rat en prédisant la quantité de synapse et l'emplacement (Figure 1). Au début, la Règle 1 suppose que toutes les neurones sont potentiellement connectés et à la règle 2 stipule que l'emplacement des synapses est établie par l'apposition accidentelle de neurones. Les trois prochaines règles sont des mesures prises pour réduire le nombre de connexions synaptiques de telle sorte qu'ils correspondent aux données expérimentales. Quand ils ont seulement utilisé les règles 1 et 2, ils ont constaté que leur densité synaptique était 18 fois plus élevée que les données déclarées. Par conséquent, ils ont mis en œuvre la règle 3, qui stipule que les synapses réelles forment à seulement une fraction de ces emplacements synaptiques potentiels. Ainsi, un certain nombre de connexions ont été coupées (taille générale). Cependant, ils ont ensuite constaté que leur modèle avait trop de connexions qui ont été constitués par que quelques synapses. Des études ont montré que la plupart des connexions sont faites de par plusieurs synapses. Pour résoudre cette question, ils ont effectué l'élagage multi-synaptique, où ils ont enlevé toutes les connexions qui ont été faites par trop peu de synapses. Ceci a utilisé règle 4, qui stipule que les connexions impliquent toujours plusieurs synapses. Par contre, il restait le problème de la densité synaptique qui était quatre fois trop grande. Par conséquent, la dernière étape, la règle 5 a été mise en œuvre. Celle ci a été basé sur une constatation que seule une fraction des connexions multi-synaptiques sont fonctionnellement active. Donc, une fraction des connexions restantes a été coupée, et ceux-ci ont été mis dans une réserve pour des utilisations ultérieures, telles que la plasticité structurelle. Ces trois étapes de taille ont été en mesure de reproduire plusieurs résultats expérimentaux dans les modèles de cerveau numériques et ont été jugées exacte par l'équipe de recherche.

Cependant, cet algorithme contient des lacunes, en particulier parce que les règles pour les connexions neuronales ne sont pas aussi simples que celles présentées dans les cas où les synapses se forment à appositions accidentelles de neurones. Des procédés tels que la spécificité fonctionnelle des connexions synaptiques locales peuvent contribuer à la spécificité de la connexion. Ko et al. (2011) ont montré que cela se produit dans le cortex visuel de la souris, où les neurones avec des réponses similaires à des stimulis forment plus de deux fois plus de connexions entre eux, par rapport à des paires de neurones avec de différentes réponses. Il est possible que les biais fonctionnels de connectivité soient également présents dans la colonne du néocortex de rat, bien que des expériences soient nécessaires pour vérifier cela. La mise en œuvre de ce processus peut améliorer les considérations de l'algorithme de spécificité de connexion lorsque la valeur du paramètre est indisponible. La notion que la spécificité synaptique peut différer entre les régions locales révèle que les fonctions neuronales peuvent varier de manière significative entre les sous-réseaux dans la colonne. Comment la connectivité locale est organisée pour produire des fonctions neuronales spécifiques reste à découvrir, mais il est l'une des questions possibles pour le projet Blue Brain à l'avenir.

Cet algorithme prend en compte de nombreux aspects de la connectivité neuronale, mais il n’est pas assez robuste dans son état actuel pour prédire avec précision les connectomes inconnus dans le cerveau. La conception ne parvient pas à couvrir entièrement le processus complexe de la spécificité synaptique, dont les mécanismes ne sont pas encore bien définis. En outre, il existe d'autres composants majeurs qui sont portés disparus tels que les jonctions lacunaires, qui sont des structures importantes nécessaires pour la signalisation neuronale électrique. Comme les changements de la spécificité synaptique peuvent se traduire en différentes fonctions neuronales et peut-être même comportements, il doit être mieux intégré dans l'algorithme pour améliorer les reconstructions numériques du cerveau.

Bibliographie

Ko, H., Hofer, S. B., Pichler, B., Buchanan, K. A., Sjöström, P. J., &Mrsic-Flogel, T.D. (2011). Functional specificity of local synaptic connections in neocortical networks. Nature, 473, 87-91. doi:10.1038/nature09880

Reimann, M.W., King, J. G., Muller, E.B., Ramaswamy, S., &Markram, H. (2015). An algorithm to predict the connectome of neural microcircuits. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 9, 1-18. doi: 10.3389/fncom.2015.00120

Markram H., Muller E., Ramaswamy S., Reimann M.W., Abdellah M., Sanchez C.A., Ailamaki A., … Schürmann F. (2015). Reconstruction and simulation of neocortical microcircuitry.Cell, 163, 456-492.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.029.

Editors: Ariel Shatsky, Justine Baek


La nanotechnologie en médecine

Écrit par Catherine Cai

Comment sentirait contrôler une des plus petites formes de matière? Comment sentirait bâtir des structures au niveau moléculaire? Ce processus se produit si souvent dans nos vies, en nous gardant vivants et en conservant tout autour de nous, que nous n’y nous rendons pas nécessairement compte.  Tout ce dont nous sommes compris est accompli à une échelle moléculaire, et avec des développements en science et en technologie, nous pouvons désormais utiliser la nanotechnologie.

Le mot “nanotechnologie” est dérivé de nano, qui signifie un milliardième d’un mètre. La nanotechnologie est une branche de la science et de la technologie qui concerne la construction des atomes et des molécules. Si vous cherchez un métier qui implique la nanotechnologie, vous êtes chanceux car elle se traite de presque tous les domaines de la science.

La nanotechnologie n’est pas récemment découverte. À l’origine, elle a été présentée en 1959 par le physicien rénommé Richard Feynman. Il a discuté ce sujet dans sa conférence, “Il y a plein d’espace au fond”(There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom), dans laquelle il a décrit la possibilité de manipuler les atomes, ce qui inclut rentrer une encyclopédie entière sur la tête d’une épingle. En 1974, le mot “nanotechnologie” a été prononcé pour la première fois par un scientifique japonais nommé Norio Taniguchi. La nanotechnologie a été convenablement présentée au public par K. Eric Drexler, qui a écrit le livre, Moteurs de création : L’ère prévue de la nanotechnologie (Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology). Ceci a capturé l’attention de nombreux. Imaginez ce que les gens auront pensé si on pourrait fabriquer des objets avec des atomes – que pourrions-nous bâtir avec cette capacité?

La première invention à faire avancer ce domaine était le microscope à effet tunnel (1981), un instrument capable de visualiser des atomes et des liaisons individuelles. Des développeurs chez IBM ont réussi à manipuler des atomes individuelles en forme du logo de leur compagnie en 1989, et par conséquent, ont gagné le prix Nobel de physique pour ceci.

En médecine, la nanotechnologie est très prometteuse. Elle peut influencer l’efficacité de la délivrance
de médicaments, la thérapie, les techniques diagnostiques, la technologie antimicrobienne, et même de la réparation cellulaire.

Un exemple, la délivrance de médicaments, consiste en transportant des médicaments de chimiothérapie aux cellules cancéreuses à l’aide de nanoparticules. Elle est actuellement sous développement à MIT. Des chercheurs ont mené l’enquête sur des souris victimes du cancer du poumon,  une des causes du décès les plus importantes dans le monde. Ils ont alors traité ces souris avec des nanoparticules pour pouvoir cibler les cellules cancereuses tout en portant un médicament nommé phenformin, qui sert extrêmement efficacement à lutter contre des cellules souches métastatiques. Les nanoparticules dépistent les cellules cancereuses par la délivrance ciblée d’anticorps, ce qui ressemble à comment les anticorps naturels marchent dans le corps pour le débarrasser des pathogènes ou matériaux étrangers. Étant attaché à la nanoparticule, cette méthode de délivrance permet au drogue d'être relâché d'une manière systémique et soutenue, ainsi prolongeant la circulation du sang, et donnant assez de temps pour que la nanoparticule accumule dans le tissu du tumeur.

Ceci est bénéfique car il n'entraîne pas la toxicité de la foie comme fait la plupart d'anticorps - par exemple, peut-être les médecins vous diraient de rester hydraté pendant que vous prenez des anticorps pour éviter l'insuffisance des organes. De plus, cette méthode diminue la taille des tumeurs 40% de plus que d'autres méthodes semblables. Cette technique d'utiliser des nanoparticules pour transporter des drogues dans le corps peut être utilisé avec d'autres drogues dans l'avenir.

La nanotechnologie fait face à un développement rapide. Avec assez de financement et de gens qui s'intéressent à s'impliquer dans ce domaine, il y aura tant de possibilités.  Quelques développements auxquels on s'attend incluent des outils chirurgicaux et diagnostiques qui pourraient atteindre les endroits les plus petits, des appareils médicaux implantés définitivement, ainsi que des améliorations en soins médicaux - tels que les pratiques médicaux plus abordables et accessibles.  Surtout, la diagnose en recherche pourrait être plus précise et en temps réel car des "nanobots", ou des très petits robots, pourront entrer le corps et se propager le long du système sanguin pour surveiller les fonctions vitales ou les niveaux chimiques d'une personne, rendant la diagnose plus précise.

Beaucoup de développements ont été réalisés et il y en a encore à réaliser. Pourtant, ce domaine de la science doit être traité prudemment. Étant plus dépendant de la technologie afin d’aider avec le fonctionnement du corps, nos systèmes immunitaires peuvent se détériorer, ainsi nous rendant susceptibles aux maladies facilement soignables une fois qu’on s’y retire.

Édité par Iqra Tariq et Justine Baek



Nanotechnology in Medicine

Author: Catherine Cai

What would it feel like, controlling one of the smallest forms of matter? What would it be like to be building structures at the molecular level?
This process happens so frequently in our lives, keeping us alive and maintaining everything around us, that we don't necessarily realize it. Everything that makes us up is done on the molecular scale, and now with developments in science and technology, we can utilize this method through nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology, derived from nano, meaning one billionth of a meter. Nanotechnology is a branch of science and technology that deals with the construction of individual atoms and molecules. If you're looking for a career with nanotechnology, you're in luck as it encompasses almost all fields of science.

Nanotechnology has not been recently discovered. It was originally introduced in 1959, by the renowned physicist, Richard Feynman. He discussed the topic in his talk, “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom”, where he described the possibility of manipulating atoms, including making it possible to fit a whole encyclopedia on the head of a pin. In 1974, the term “nanotechnology” was first used by a Japanese scientist by the name of Norio Taniguchi. Nanotechnology was properly introduced to the public by K. Eric Drexler, who wrote the book, Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. This sparked the attention of many. Imagine what people would have thought, being able to fabricate things with atoms—what could we build with this capability?

The first invention to help the field of study was the scanning tunneling microscope (1981), which had the ability to visualize individual atoms and bonds. IBM developers were successfully able to manipulate individual atoms in an arrangement of their company’s logo in 1989 and thus won the Nobel Prize in Physics.

In medicine, nanotechnology has been very promising. It can influence the efficiency of drug delivery,
therapy, diagnostic techniques, antimicrobial tech, and even cell repair.

One of the examples, drug delivery, is transporting chemotherapy drugs to cancer cells with the use of nanoparticles. It is currently under development at MIT. Researchers have conducted the experiment on mice that were given lung cancer, one of the world's leading causes of death. The researchers then treated the mice using nanoparticles to target the cancer cells while carrying a drug called phenformin, which is highly effective against metastatic stem cells. The nanoparticle detects the cancer cells through "antibody targeted delivery", which is similar to how natural antibodies work in the body to get rid of foreign pathogens or material. Being attached to the nanoparticle, this method of delivery allows the drug to be released in a sustained and systemic manner, prolonging blood circulation, and giving the nanoparticle enough time to accumulate in tumor tissue. The benefits of this include that this does not induce liver toxicity like most antibodies—for example, doctors may tell you to keep hydrated while taking antibodies to prevent organ failure. This method also shrunk tumors 40% more than other comparable techniques. This technique of using nanoparticles to transport drugs in the human body system can be extended to other drugs in the future.

Nanotechnology is developing very quickly. With the right funding and people willing to partake in this field, the possibilities lie on a wide expanse. Some developments we can expect in the future include having more elegant surgical and diagnostic tools to help reach the tiniest of places, having medical devices permanently implanted, as well as making greater improvements to healthcare, such as making medical practices more accessible and affordable. Notably, research diagnosis could be more accurate and in real time as "nanobots", which are microrobots, can enter the body and travel along the bloodstream to monitor a person's vital functions or chemical levels, allowing for more accurate diagnosis.

There are many developments that have been made and there are still more to come. However, this field of science must be dealt with carefully. With an increased reliance on technology to help bodily functions, our immune systems may deteriorate, making us susceptible to simple diseases once we withdraw.

Editors: Iqra Tariq, Justine Baek

Tuesday, June 21, 2016

Proton Therapy – A New Tool for Treating Cancer

Originally Published: June 21, 2016
Written by: Lawrence Pang

One of the most effective ways of combating cancer is radiation therapy. Traditionally, radiation therapy uses photons in the form of high-energy x-ray radiation, which ionizes (i.e. removes or adds an electron) atoms in the DNA chains of cancerous cells. This changes the chemical properties of the atom, damaging the DNA and preventing the cancerous cell from multiplying. 


One significant issue with radiotherapy is that regular cells in the vicinity of cancerous cells are also impacted by the radiation. Photons are not charged so they are not attracted or repulsed by any atoms. They can only interact with matter via absorption. Whether absorption actually occurs is purely reliant on chance. Given a certain amount of tissue, the proportion of photons that are absorbed by the tissue at each depth is constant, so the total photon dose delivered to the tissue increases slowly. This is demonstrated in the Bragg curve, which indicates the energy loss of various types of radiation as they travel through matter. As can be seen in the graph below, the Bragg curve of the photon beam (pink) decreases slowly as only relatively few photons lose their energy (i.e. are absorbed) at each depth. Furthermore, photons are also sometimes re-emitted by atoms at different angles, so some of the dose will also be scattered into surrounding tissue. Therefore, many healthy cells outside of the tumour will also be affected.




Source: Miller, A. Bragg Peak. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BraggPeak.png (accessed March 23, 2016). Copyright 2005 by A. Miller. Reprinted with permission.

This side effect can be resolved with proton therapy, which is simply radiating protons and not photons. As can be seen in the graph on the left, the proton beam (blue and red) has a sharp peak in the Bragg curve. This indicates that a vast majority of the proton dose is delivered to the specific peak area, and almost none to surrounding regions. The location of this peak can be controlled by radiating protons of different energies. Furthermore, because protons are also relatively massive, there is a negligible scattering effect. Therefore, only cancerous cells can be targeted, and no damage is done to the DNA of surrounding healthy cells.

Proton therapy, while exciting, has its own unique disadvantages. The large mass of protons is beneficial when it comes to reducing scatter but is a barrier when it comes to delivering cost-effective therapy. Protons must be accelerated to very high speeds as part of the therapy, which requires expensive equipment in the form of cyclotrons or synchrotrons (i.e. particle accelerators). Few proton therapy centers have been established due to the discouraging capital cost.There is only one in Canada: the TRIUMF center in Vancouver. In addition, the relative cost of proton therapy is more than twice that of photon therapy (Goitein and Jermann, 2003). However, more modern proton beams can reduce the cost dramatically, and as a result the cost of proton therapy is no longer unrealistic for patients (Lievens and Van den Bogaert, 2005).

Ultimately, proton therapy is a solid prospective technology, especially for tumours in sensitive regions such as the eyes. The jury is still out on its effectiveness in general; the consensus seems to be that proton therapy has significant theoretical advantages but not clinical benefits (St. Clair et al, 2004). Currently, a five-year study of proton therapy's effectiveness against prostate cancer is underway at Massachussetts General Hospital. We hope that its results will lead to yet another powerful weapon in the fight against cancer.

References

Greco, C.; Wolden, S. Current status of radiotherapy with proton and light ion beams. Cancer. 2007, 109, 1227-38.

Goitein, M.; Jermann, M. The Relative Costs of Proton and X-ray Radiation Therapy. Clinical Oncology. 2003, 15, 37-50.

Lievens, Y.; Van den Bogaert, W. Proton beam therapy: Too expensive to become true? Radiotherapy and Oncology. 2005, 75, 131-3.

St. Clair, W. H. Advantage of protons compared to conventional X-ray or IMRT in the treatment of a pediatric patient with medulloblastoma. International Journal of Radiation, Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2004, 58, 727-34.

Terasawa, T.; Dvorak, T.; Ip, S. Systematic Review: Charged-Particle Radiation Therapy for Cancer. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2009, 151, 556-65.

Monday, May 30, 2016

Me, myself, and the universe

Originally Published: May 30, 2016
by: Kelvin Zhang


When you look up in the night sky, you see stars.
Hundreds, thousands of them, glimmering and glistening,
each and every one bigger and brighter than our own sun.
A hundred billion stars lie in our galaxy,
and another hundred billion galaxies in our universe.
Our minds are unable to comprehend how large the universe really is.

From that perspective, the Earth is tiny.
But everything you have ever known, everyone you have ever loved
lies on that small dot orbiting the sun.
Everyone that has ever lived.
Every human, every organism.
Every great leader.
Every saint and sinner.
On that small blue planet.

To think of the blood that we shed,
of all the destruction that we caused
just to be temporary leaders of a small place --
It makes you feel small. Insignificant.

Our lives may be a small fraction of the universe,
but you should feel big,
because the Universe is in you.
You are those very atoms that the Big Bang created,
those very atoms scattered by the deaths of stars.
Those atoms, the pieces to a puzzle,
that continuously rearrange themselves -
forming intricate patterns.
Growing in size and complexity
and over billions of years:

You are here.
You are connected to the universe.
Atoms with consciousness.
Matter with curiosity.
You,
a universe of atoms --
an atom in the universe.
That is the beauty of science, the universe, and you.

The Science of Tears

Originally Published: May 30, 2016
Written by: Malvika Agarwal

When was the last you cried? Maybe it was while you were watching a sad movie or when a loved one was leaving you or because you just felt lonely. The next thing you know, you have a lump in your throat, your eyes start to water and tears are running down your cheeks. Considering that crying is an important and common part of everyone's lives, many of us know surprisingly little about it.

What happens when we cry, exactly? While the lacrimal gland produces a watery component, the glands in our eyelids produce an oily component, and other cells produce mucus. These mix together on the upper, outer region of your eye to create a film, which covers the white of the eye and the cornea. When we blink, the film is wiped across the eye by the eyelids. This fluid, better known as tears, drains into the tiny openings in the eyelids, called puncta (one on the inside corner of each lid), and then through ducts to the nasal cavity, where they either become part of nasal fluid or are swallowed. This is why we also get "stuffy" when we cry. If insufficient tears are produced or the constituents are out of balance, it can result in sore, dry eyes.

Over the years, many scientists have researched on how humans cry. Ad Vingerhoets, a professor of psychology at Tilburg University, discovered that there are 3 types of tears. The first type is basal tears, and they lubricate and protect the eyes at all times from damage by incoming air currents and floating debris.

Often, people tend to cry when they are cutting onions. These types of tears are called reflex tears, which are produced when the eyes make contact with wind, sand, insects or rocks. Reflex tears protect the eyes from irritants such as wind, smoke, and chemicals. They also help flush out random specks of dirt or any object that gets into the eye.

The last types of tears are emotional tears, which are secreted in moments of intense feeling - sometimes joy, but more often sorrow. These tears ears are produced in such large quantity that they overflow and fall down our cheeks. This type of crying occurs in response to stress, frustration, sadness, and happiness, and any other motion that evokes tears.

It has been statistically proven crying is beneficial for the health of individuals. Studies show that holding your emotions in can be dangerous over the long-term. In fact, some research indicates that stifling emotional tears can cause elevated risk of heart disease and hypertension. Other studies have shown that people suffering from such conditions as colitis or ulcers tend to have a less positive attitude about crying than their healthier counterparts. Psychologists recommend that people suffering from grief express their emotions through talking and crying, rather than keeping their emotions in check. Many studies also show that women cry 5.3 times a month, while men only cry about 1.3 times a month on an average. The reason is that men produce testosterone, which prevents them to tear up. On the other hand, women have lots of prolactin (a protein found in the body), which stimulates tears.

Tears of joy and tears of exhaustion. Tears of a clown or crocodile tears. Tears caused by chopping onions and death of a loved one. In the end, a tear is a tear, and they help protect and preserve the condition of our eyes. Crying might make your eyes red and puffy, but they won't affect your eyesight. So the next time you have the temptation to cry, go all out! 

References

Duffin. C. Why do we Cry Tears of Joy?. TMG [Online] 2014, 4.3,22-25.

Mikulak, A; Aragon, O; "Tears of Joy" May Help Us Maintain Emotional Balance. PSA. [Online] 2014, 2.1, 30-35.

Oaklander. M. The Science of Crying. TSA [Online] 2016, Version 4.2, 3-10.

Oskar, S. Why do we cry?. CPJ [Online]. 2013, Version 1. 60-69

Popova, M. The Science of Why We Cry and the Three Types of Tears. [Online] 2012,107, 4-5.

http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/02/cry.aspx

Dear Science

Originally Published: May 30, 2014
Written by: Fayza Sharif

Dear Science,

I am writing to confess to you my feelings of attraction that I had when we first met and still painfully harbor. This might come as a shock to you as first, but I can assure you that it is much more frightening for me to write these words then it is to read them. I hope you will take everything I write to heart and understand the sentiments that I will try to communicate through these lines.

Our first encounter was as memorable as Einstein's equation of relativity. We met at my house where my parents brought you over for a play date. Your concepts were a few centuries old, but that didn't stop me from feeling gravitated towards you. You were presented to me in the form of book. You whispered beautiful numbers and had me at 1+1. From then on, I was hooked. Your equations, your formulas, your logic, all of it was enamoring. I wanted to learn more, see more, and I did.

You spoke of truths about the universe, about this world, and about ourselves. You never hurt me, you never said anything mean and even if you did, there was always a good that came out it. There were times when I wanted to give up on you, to do the unimaginable, but I stuck through it, no matter how hard you played. You would nurse me when I was sick, you held an umbrella for me in the rain, you gave me energy from the glucose sent me, but most importantly, you gave me a passion that I never thought could ever be lit.

I went to summer camps, took classes and clubs with you, just so you could be in my life. I lost sleep over you because I thought about you all the time. Everything just made sense when I was with you, and nothing did without you. You were everywhere at any time and impossible to forget. My love for you grew larger and my knowledge of you expanded.

I remember the days where you talked about the ways cells formed and how the world worked. I remember the days when you talked to me about the absurd, but then I'd realize that it wasn't. I remember the days when we'd be using our MP3s all the time and then you invented the iPod for me when it eventually broke. I remember the days when you changed my life for the better with the never-ending presents you gave me. Without you, I wouldn't be the person I am today.

My feelings can never be fully transcribed on this page, but I just want you to understand that I owe a debt I don't know how to pay back. I plan to see a lot more of you in the future, where we can build more lasting memories.

A fellow scientist,
Fayza Sharif

Monday, February 1, 2016

Science, you’re hotter than a bunsen burner set to full power.

Originally Published: February 1, 2016
Written by: Adela Lam

We're like carbon and hydrogen, we bonded well from the moment we met back when I visited the Ontario Science Centre for the first time. I walked into the richly ornamented exhibits filled with strange shapes, loud noises, and well, you were the star of the show. Put on display everywhere, how could I not fall in love with you at first sight?

I love coffee. Or should I say CoFe2? Mixed in with a perfect blend of milk and C12H22O11, I was introduced to my new favourite alternative to H2O. You, my dear, opened a whole new world of treasures and invaluable experiences to me. You certainly frustrated me to no end, and I found you irresistible. You were and still are mysterious, full of secrets just waiting to be discovered.

You were and still are my caring, loving, mentor. For example, you taught me that a radioactive cat had 18 half lives, anything that didn't matter had no mass, and that the dullest element is bohrium. Plus, I still can't untangle your fascinating string theory.

As to every action there is a reaction equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Therefore, I know you also love me with the same magnitude of the love that I love you with. Our love fills all four chambers of my heart, and your overwhelming beauty is imprinted on the retina of my eyes.

Though I love you as a whole, I love one third of you the most. I love biology. Apart from being the only science where multiplication and division mean the same thing, it is the science of living things. And this is where you helped me most of all.

What am I going to do? What do I need to do in order to satisfy my wants? This was a question that bugged me every waking moment of my life. I wanted to realize what life was. And through studying you, beautiful biology, I discovered it. You showed me that biology was the study of how things live and experience. Analyzing this, I deduced that life was living and experiencing, as the experiences people and creatures go through are incredibly special and living is so much more unique than anything else.

That was the moment I realized my true passion. My passion is for living, and the study of living things. By directing myself on a path towards being able to explore the behind the scenes of life; the hidden treasures of how people and creatures are able to live, I will make myself quite happy knowing that I study what I truly am. You, biology, enable me to fulfil my unique goals and achieve treasured happiness.

Well, science, you're stuck with an overly obsessed lover. Our future looks like it is going to be filled with crazy eternal memories as an infinite set.

Your nascent biologist,
Adela Lam