The Blue Brain Project

Author: Brian Hyung

The Blue Brain Project is an initiative by Henry Markram and his team of researchers to digitally recreate the immature rat’s neocortical column. Backed by €1-billion in funding, Markram hopes to eventually expand this project into recreating the entire human brain. However, as seen in his paper, there are many problems and shortcomings even with just the rat cortex. This project involves many different parts, from digitally modeling different neuron types, accurately representing synaptic transmission, and more. However, this article will only describe the aspect of how the team tried to accurately represent neuronal and synaptic connections, as well as the potential problems that arise from their method.

The Blue Brain project relies on a 5-rule algorithm to reconstruct the connectome of a rat neocortical column by predicting synapse quantity and location (Figure 1). Initially, Rule 1 assumes that all neurons are potentially connected and Rule 2 states that the location of synapses is established by incidental apposition of neurons.The next three rules were measures taken to reduce the number of synaptic connections (pruning) such that they fit actual experimental data. When they used just rules 1 and 2, they found that their synaptic density was 18 times greater than reported data. Therefore, they implemented Rule 3, which states that actual synapses form at only a fraction of these potential synaptic locations. Thus a number of connections were cut (general pruning). However, now, they found that their model had too many connections that were made up of few synapses. Studies have shown that most connections are made of multiple synapses.To address this issue, they performed multi-synaptic pruning, where they removed all of the connections that were made of too few synapses. This used Rule 4, which states that connections always involve multiple synapses.Yet still they had a problem of having synaptic density that was four times too great. Therefore, the last step, Rule 5 was implemented, which was based on a finding that only a fraction of the multi-synaptic connections are functionally active.Therefore, a fraction of the remaining connections were cut (plasticity pruning), and these were put into a reserve pool for later uses, such as structural plasticity. These three pruning stages were able to reproduce several experimental findings in the digital brain models and was deemed accurate by the research team.

However, this algorithm contains shortcomings, especially because the rules for neuronal connections are not as simple as it is presented in cases where synapses form at incidental appositions of neurons. Processes such as functional specificity of local synaptic connections can contribute to connection specificity. Ko et al. (2011) showed that this occurs in the visual cortex of mice, where neurons with similar responses to stimuli formed more than twice as many connections between them, compared to neuron pairs differing in response. It is possible that functional biases of connectivity are also present within the rat neocortical column, although experiments are required to verify this. Implementing this process can improve the algorithm’s considerations of connection specificity when the parameter value is unavailable. The notion that synaptic specificity can differ between local regions reveals that neuronal functions can significantly vary among subnetworks in the column. How local connectivity is organized to produce specific neuronal functions remains to be discovered, but it is one of the possible questions for the Blue Brain project to answer in the future.

This algorithm takes into account many aspects of neuronal connectivity, but it is not robust enough in its current state to accurately predict unknown connectomes in the brain. The design fails to fully encompass the complex process of synaptic specificity, whose mechanisms are not yet well defined. In addition, there are other major components that are unaccounted for such as gap junctions, which are important structures required for electrical neuronal signaling. Since changes in synaptic specificity can translate into different neuronal functions and possibly even behaviours, it must be better integrated into the algorithm to improve digital reconstructions of the brain.

Works Cited:

Ko, H., Hofer, S. B., Pichler, B., Buchanan, K. A., Sjöström, P. J., &Mrsic-Flogel, T.D. (2011). Functional specificity of local synaptic connections in neocortical networks. Nature, 473, 87-91. doi:10.1038/nature09880

Reimann, M.W., King, J. G., Muller, E.B., Ramaswamy, S., &Markram, H. (2015). An algorithm to predict the connectome of neural microcircuits. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 9, 1-18. doi: 10.3389/fncom.2015.00120

Markram H., Muller E., Ramaswamy S., Reimann M.W., Abdellah M., Sanchez C.A., Ailamaki A., … Schürmann F. (2015). Reconstruction and simulation of neocortical microcircuitry.Cell, 163, 456-492.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.029.

Editors: Ariel Shatsky, Justine Baek

Le projet Blue Brain

Auteur: Brian Hyung

Le projet Blue Brain est une initiative de Henry Markram et son équipe de chercheurs pour recréer numériquement la colonne du néocortex d’u rat immature. Soutenu par 1 milliard € en financement, Markram espère éventuellement étendre ce projet pout inclure la récréation de l'ensemble du cerveau humain. Cependant, comme on le voit dans son journal, il y a beaucoup de difficultés impliquées, même avec simplement le cortex de rat. Ce projet comprend de nombreuses parties différentes, de la modélisation numérique de  types de neurones différents, à la représentation précise de la transmission synaptique, et plus. Toutefois, cet article ne décrit que la façon dont l'équipe a essayé de représenter avec précision les connexions neuronales et synaptiques, ainsi que les problèmes potentiels qui découlent de leur méthode.

Le projet Blue Brain repose sur un algorithme à 5 règles pour reconstruire le connectome d'une colonne du néocortex de rat en prédisant la quantité de synapse et l'emplacement (Figure 1). Au début, la Règle 1 suppose que toutes les neurones sont potentiellement connectés et à la règle 2 stipule que l'emplacement des synapses est établie par l'apposition accidentelle de neurones. Les trois prochaines règles sont des mesures prises pour réduire le nombre de connexions synaptiques de telle sorte qu'ils correspondent aux données expérimentales. Quand ils ont seulement utilisé les règles 1 et 2, ils ont constaté que leur densité synaptique était 18 fois plus élevée que les données déclarées. Par conséquent, ils ont mis en œuvre la règle 3, qui stipule que les synapses réelles forment à seulement une fraction de ces emplacements synaptiques potentiels. Ainsi, un certain nombre de connexions ont été coupées (taille générale). Cependant, ils ont ensuite constaté que leur modèle avait trop de connexions qui ont été constitués par que quelques synapses. Des études ont montré que la plupart des connexions sont faites de par plusieurs synapses. Pour résoudre cette question, ils ont effectué l'élagage multi-synaptique, où ils ont enlevé toutes les connexions qui ont été faites par trop peu de synapses. Ceci a utilisé règle 4, qui stipule que les connexions impliquent toujours plusieurs synapses. Par contre, il restait le problème de la densité synaptique qui était quatre fois trop grande. Par conséquent, la dernière étape, la règle 5 a été mise en œuvre. Celle ci a été basé sur une constatation que seule une fraction des connexions multi-synaptiques sont fonctionnellement active. Donc, une fraction des connexions restantes a été coupée, et ceux-ci ont été mis dans une réserve pour des utilisations ultérieures, telles que la plasticité structurelle. Ces trois étapes de taille ont été en mesure de reproduire plusieurs résultats expérimentaux dans les modèles de cerveau numériques et ont été jugées exacte par l'équipe de recherche.

Cependant, cet algorithme contient des lacunes, en particulier parce que les règles pour les connexions neuronales ne sont pas aussi simples que celles présentées dans les cas où les synapses se forment à appositions accidentelles de neurones. Des procédés tels que la spécificité fonctionnelle des connexions synaptiques locales peuvent contribuer à la spécificité de la connexion. Ko et al. (2011) ont montré que cela se produit dans le cortex visuel de la souris, où les neurones avec des réponses similaires à des stimulis forment plus de deux fois plus de connexions entre eux, par rapport à des paires de neurones avec de différentes réponses. Il est possible que les biais fonctionnels de connectivité soient également présents dans la colonne du néocortex de rat, bien que des expériences soient nécessaires pour vérifier cela. La mise en œuvre de ce processus peut améliorer les considérations de l'algorithme de spécificité de connexion lorsque la valeur du paramètre est indisponible. La notion que la spécificité synaptique peut différer entre les régions locales révèle que les fonctions neuronales peuvent varier de manière significative entre les sous-réseaux dans la colonne. Comment la connectivité locale est organisée pour produire des fonctions neuronales spécifiques reste à découvrir, mais il est l'une des questions possibles pour le projet Blue Brain à l'avenir.

Cet algorithme prend en compte de nombreux aspects de la connectivité neuronale, mais il n’est pas assez robuste dans son état actuel pour prédire avec précision les connectomes inconnus dans le cerveau. La conception ne parvient pas à couvrir entièrement le processus complexe de la spécificité synaptique, dont les mécanismes ne sont pas encore bien définis. En outre, il existe d'autres composants majeurs qui sont portés disparus tels que les jonctions lacunaires, qui sont des structures importantes nécessaires pour la signalisation neuronale électrique. Comme les changements de la spécificité synaptique peuvent se traduire en différentes fonctions neuronales et peut-être même comportements, il doit être mieux intégré dans l'algorithme pour améliorer les reconstructions numériques du cerveau.

Bibliographie

Ko, H., Hofer, S. B., Pichler, B., Buchanan, K. A., Sjöström, P. J., &Mrsic-Flogel, T.D. (2011). Functional specificity of local synaptic connections in neocortical networks. Nature, 473, 87-91. doi:10.1038/nature09880

Reimann, M.W., King, J. G., Muller, E.B., Ramaswamy, S., &Markram, H. (2015). An algorithm to predict the connectome of neural microcircuits. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 9, 1-18. doi: 10.3389/fncom.2015.00120

Markram H., Muller E., Ramaswamy S., Reimann M.W., Abdellah M., Sanchez C.A., Ailamaki A., … Schürmann F. (2015). Reconstruction and simulation of neocortical microcircuitry.Cell, 163, 456-492.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.029.

Editors: Ariel Shatsky, Justine Baek

La nanotechnologie en médecine

Écrit par Catherine Cai

Comment sentirait contrôler une des plus petites formes de matière? Comment sentirait bâtir des structures au niveau moléculaire? Ce processus se produit si souvent dans nos vies, en nous gardant vivants et en conservant tout autour de nous, que nous n’y nous rendons pas nécessairement compte.  Tout ce dont nous sommes compris est accompli à une échelle moléculaire, et avec des développements en science et en technologie, nous pouvons désormais utiliser la nanotechnologie.

Le mot “nanotechnologie” est dérivé de nano, qui signifie un milliardième d’un mètre. La nanotechnologie est une branche de la science et de la technologie qui concerne la construction des atomes et des molécules. Si vous cherchez un métier qui implique la nanotechnologie, vous êtes chanceux car elle se traite de presque tous les domaines de la science.

La nanotechnologie n’est pas récemment découverte. À l’origine, elle a été présentée en 1959 par le physicien rénommé Richard Feynman. Il a discuté ce sujet dans sa conférence, “Il y a plein d’espace au fond”(There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom), dans laquelle il a décrit la possibilité de manipuler les atomes, ce qui inclut rentrer une encyclopédie entière sur la tête d’une épingle. En 1974, le mot “nanotechnologie” a été prononcé pour la première fois par un scientifique japonais nommé Norio Taniguchi. La nanotechnologie a été convenablement présentée au public par K. Eric Drexler, qui a écrit le livre, Moteurs de création : L’ère prévue de la nanotechnologie (Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology). Ceci a capturé l’attention de nombreux. Imaginez ce que les gens auront pensé si on pourrait fabriquer des objets avec des atomes – que pourrions-nous bâtir avec cette capacité?

La première invention à faire avancer ce domaine était le microscope à effet tunnel (1981), un instrument capable de visualiser des atomes et des liaisons individuelles. Des développeurs chez IBM ont réussi à manipuler des atomes individuelles en forme du logo de leur compagnie en 1989, et par conséquent, ont gagné le prix Nobel de physique pour ceci.

En médecine, la nanotechnologie est très prometteuse. Elle peut influencer l’efficacité de la délivrance

de médicaments, la thérapie, les techniques diagnostiques, la technologie antimicrobienne, et même de la réparation cellulaire.

Un exemple, la délivrance de médicaments, consiste en transportant des médicaments de chimiothérapie aux cellules cancéreuses à l’aide de nanoparticules. Elle est actuellement sous développement à MIT. Des chercheurs ont mené l’enquête sur des souris victimes du cancer du poumon,  une des causes du décès les plus importantes dans le monde. Ils ont alors traité ces souris avec des nanoparticules pour pouvoir cibler les cellules cancereuses tout en portant un médicament nommé phenformin, qui sert extrêmement efficacement à lutter contre des cellules souches métastatiques. Les nanoparticules dépistent les cellules cancereuses par la délivrance ciblée d’anticorps, ce qui ressemble à comment les anticorps naturels marchent dans le corps pour le débarrasser des pathogènes ou matériaux étrangers. Étant attaché à la nanoparticule, cette méthode de délivrance permet au drogue d'être relâché d'une manière systémique et soutenue, ainsi prolongeant la circulation du sang, et donnant assez de temps pour que la nanoparticule accumule dans le tissu du tumeur.

Ceci est bénéfique car il n'entraîne pas la toxicité de la foie comme fait la plupart d'anticorps - par exemple, peut-être les médecins vous diraient de rester hydraté pendant que vous prenez des anticorps pour éviter l'insuffisance des organes. De plus, cette méthode diminue la taille des tumeurs 40% de plus que d'autres méthodes semblables. Cette technique d'utiliser des nanoparticules pour transporter des drogues dans le corps peut être utilisé avec d'autres drogues dans l'avenir.

La nanotechnologie fait face à un développement rapide. Avec assez de financement et de gens qui s'intéressent à s'impliquer dans ce domaine, il y aura tant de possibilités.  Quelques développements auxquels on s'attend incluent des outils chirurgicaux et diagnostiques qui pourraient atteindre les endroits les plus petits, des appareils médicaux implantés définitivement, ainsi que des améliorations en soins médicaux - tels que les pratiques médicaux plus abordables et accessibles.  Surtout, la diagnose en recherche pourrait être plus précise et en temps réel car des "nanobots", ou des très petits robots, pourront entrer le corps et se propager le long du système sanguin pour surveiller les fonctions vitales ou les niveaux chimiques d'une personne, rendant la diagnose plus précise.

Beaucoup de développements ont été réalisés et il y en a encore à réaliser. Pourtant, ce domaine de la science doit être traité prudemment. Étant plus dépendant de la technologie afin d’aider avec le fonctionnement du corps, nos systèmes immunitaires peuvent se détériorer, ainsi nous rendant susceptibles aux maladies facilement soignables une fois qu’on s’y retire.

Édité par Iqra Tariq et Justine Baek

Nanotechnology in Medicine

Author: Catherine Cai

What would it feel like, controlling one of the smallest forms of matter? What would it be like to be building structures at the molecular level?
This process happens so frequently in our lives, keeping us alive and maintaining everything around us, that we don't necessarily realize it. Everything that makes us up is done on the molecular scale, and now with developments in science and technology, we can utilize this method through nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology, derived from nano, meaning one billionth of a meter. Nanotechnology is a branch of science and technology that deals with the construction of individual atoms and molecules. If you're looking for a career with nanotechnology, you're in luck as it encompasses almost all fields of science.

Nanotechnology has not been recently discovered. It was originally introduced in 1959, by the renowned physicist, Richard Feynman. He discussed the topic in his talk, “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom”, where he described the possibility of manipulating atoms, including making it possible to fit a whole encyclopedia on the head of a pin. In 1974, the term “nanotechnology” was first used by a Japanese scientist by the name of Norio Taniguchi. Nanotechnology was properly introduced to the public by K. Eric Drexler, who wrote the book, Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. This sparked the attention of many. Imagine what people would have thought, being able to fabricate things with atoms—what could we build with this capability?

The first invention to help the field of study was the scanning tunneling microscope (1981), which had the ability to visualize individual atoms and bonds. IBM developers were successfully able to manipulate individual atoms in an arrangement of their company’s logo in 1989 and thus won the Nobel Prize in Physics.

In medicine, nanotechnology has been very promising. It can influence the efficiency of drug delivery,

therapy, diagnostic techniques, antimicrobial tech, and even cell repair.

One of the examples, drug delivery, is transporting chemotherapy drugs to cancer cells with the use of nanoparticles. It is currently under development at MIT. Researchers have conducted the experiment on mice that were given lung cancer, one of the world's leading causes of death. The researchers then treated the mice using nanoparticles to target the cancer cells while carrying a drug called phenformin, which is highly effective against metastatic stem cells. The nanoparticle detects the cancer cells through "antibody targeted delivery", which is similar to how natural antibodies work in the body to get rid of foreign pathogens or material. Being attached to the nanoparticle, this method of delivery allows the drug to be released in a sustained and systemic manner, prolonging blood circulation, and giving the nanoparticle enough time to accumulate in tumor tissue. The benefits of this include that this does not induce liver toxicity like most antibodies—for example, doctors may tell you to keep hydrated while taking antibodies to prevent organ failure. This method also shrunk tumors 40% more than other comparable techniques. This technique of using nanoparticles to transport drugs in the human body system can be extended to other drugs in the future.

Nanotechnology is developing very quickly. With the right funding and people willing to partake in this field, the possibilities lie on a wide expanse. Some developments we can expect in the future include having more elegant surgical and diagnostic tools to help reach the tiniest of places, having medical devices permanently implanted, as well as making greater improvements to healthcare, such as making medical practices more accessible and affordable. Notably, research diagnosis could be more accurate and in real time as "nanobots", which are microrobots, can enter the body and travel along the bloodstream to monitor a person's vital functions or chemical levels, allowing for more accurate diagnosis.

There are many developments that have been made and there are still more to come. However, this field of science must be dealt with carefully. With an increased reliance on technology to help bodily functions, our immune systems may deteriorate, making us susceptible to simple diseases once we withdraw.

Editors: Iqra Tariq, Justine Baek

Proton Therapy – A New Tool for Treating Cancer

Originally Published: June 21, 2016
Written by: Lawrence Pang

One of the most effective ways of combating cancer is radiation therapy. Traditionally, radiation therapy uses photons in the form of high-energy x-ray radiation, which ionizes (i.e. removes or adds an electron) atoms in the DNA chains of cancerous cells. This changes the chemical properties of the atom, damaging the DNA and preventing the cancerous cell from multiplying. 

One significant issue with radiotherapy is that regular cells in the vicinity of cancerous cells are also impacted by the radiation. Photons are not charged so they are not attracted or repulsed by any atoms. They can only interact with matter via absorption. Whether absorption actually occurs is purely reliant on chance. Given a certain amount of tissue, the proportion of photons that are absorbed by the tissue at each depth is constant, so the total photon dose delivered to the tissue increases slowly. This is demonstrated in the Bragg curve, which indicates the energy loss of various types of radiation as they travel through matter. As can be seen in the graph below, the Bragg curve of the photon beam (pink) decreases slowly as only relatively few photons lose their energy (i.e. are absorbed) at each depth. Furthermore, photons are also sometimes re-emitted by atoms at different angles, so some of the dose will also be scattered into surrounding tissue. Therefore, many healthy cells outside of the tumour will also be affected.

Source: Miller, A. Bragg Peak. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BraggPeak.png (accessed March 23, 2016). Copyright 2005 by A. Miller. Reprinted with permission.
This side effect can be resolved with proton therapy, which is simply radiating protons and not photons. As can be seen in the graph on the left, the proton beam (blue and red) has a sharp peak in the Bragg curve. This indicates that a vast majority of the proton dose is delivered to the specific peak area, and almost none to surrounding regions. The location of this peak can be controlled by radiating protons of different energies. Furthermore, because protons are also relatively massive, there is a negligible scattering effect. Therefore, only cancerous cells can be targeted, and no damage is done to the DNA of surrounding healthy cells.

Proton therapy, while exciting, has its own unique disadvantages. The large mass of protons is beneficial when it comes to reducing scatter but is a barrier when it comes to delivering cost-effective therapy. Protons must be accelerated to very high speeds as part of the therapy, which requires expensive equipment in the form of cyclotrons or synchrotrons (i.e. particle accelerators). Few proton therapy centers have been established due to the discouraging capital cost.There is only one in Canada: the TRIUMF center in Vancouver. In addition, the relative cost of proton therapy is more than twice that of photon therapy (Goitein and Jermann, 2003). However, more modern proton beams can reduce the cost dramatically, and as a result the cost of proton therapy is no longer unrealistic for patients (Lievens and Van den Bogaert, 2005).

Ultimately, proton therapy is a solid prospective technology, especially for tumours in sensitive regions such as the eyes. The jury is still out on its effectiveness in general; the consensus seems to be that proton therapy has significant theoretical advantages but not clinical benefits (St. Clair et al, 2004). Currently, a five-year study of proton therapy's effectiveness against prostate cancer is underway at Massachussetts General Hospital. We hope that its results will lead to yet another powerful weapon in the fight against cancer.

References

Greco, C.; Wolden, S. Current status of radiotherapy with proton and light ion beams. Cancer. 2007, 109, 1227-38.

Goitein, M.; Jermann, M. The Relative Costs of Proton and X-ray Radiation Therapy. Clinical Oncology. 2003, 15, 37-50.

Lievens, Y.; Van den Bogaert, W. Proton beam therapy: Too expensive to become true? Radiotherapy and Oncology. 2005, 75, 131-3.

St. Clair, W. H. Advantage of protons compared to conventional X-ray or IMRT in the treatment of a pediatric patient with medulloblastoma. International Journal of Radiation, Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2004, 58, 727-34.

Terasawa, T.; Dvorak, T.; Ip, S. Systematic Review: Charged-Particle Radiation Therapy for Cancer. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2009, 151, 556-65.

Me, myself, and the universe

Originally Published: May 30, 2016
by: Kelvin Zhang

When you look up in the night sky, you see stars.
Hundreds, thousands of them, glimmering and glistening,
each and every one bigger and brighter than our own sun.
A hundred billion stars lie in our galaxy,
and another hundred billion galaxies in our universe.
Our minds are unable to comprehend how large the universe really is.

From that perspective, the Earth is tiny.
But everything you have ever known, everyone you have ever loved
lies on that small dot orbiting the sun.
Everyone that has ever lived.
Every human, every organism.
Every great leader.
Every saint and sinner.
On that small blue planet.

To think of the blood that we shed,
of all the destruction that we caused
just to be temporary leaders of a small place --
It makes you feel small. Insignificant.

Our lives may be a small fraction of the universe,
but you should feel big,
because the Universe is in you.
You are those very atoms that the Big Bang created,
those very atoms scattered by the deaths of stars.
Those atoms, the pieces to a puzzle,
that continuously rearrange themselves -
forming intricate patterns.
Growing in size and complexity
and over billions of years:

You are here.
You are connected to the universe.
Atoms with consciousness.
Matter with curiosity.
You,
a universe of atoms --
an atom in the universe.
That is the beauty of science, the universe, and you.

The Science of Tears

Originally Published: May 30, 2016
Written by: Malvika Agarwal

When was the last you cried? Maybe it was while you were watching a sad movie or when a loved one was leaving you or because you just felt lonely. The next thing you know, you have a lump in your throat, your eyes start to water and tears are running down your cheeks. Considering that crying is an important and common part of everyone's lives, many of us know surprisingly little about it.

What happens when we cry, exactly? While the lacrimal gland produces a watery component, the glands in our eyelids produce an oily component, and other cells produce mucus. These mix together on the upper, outer region of your eye to create a film, which covers the white of the eye and the cornea. When we blink, the film is wiped across the eye by the eyelids. This fluid, better known as tears, drains into the tiny openings in the eyelids, called puncta (one on the inside corner of each lid), and then through ducts to the nasal cavity, where they either become part of nasal fluid or are swallowed. This is why we also get "stuffy" when we cry. If insufficient tears are produced or the constituents are out of balance, it can result in sore, dry eyes.

Over the years, many scientists have researched on how humans cry. Ad Vingerhoets, a professor of psychology at Tilburg University, discovered that there are 3 types of tears. The first type is basal tears, and they lubricate and protect the eyes at all times from damage by incoming air currents and floating debris.

Often, people tend to cry when they are cutting onions. These types of tears are called reflex tears, which are produced when the eyes make contact with wind, sand, insects or rocks. Reflex tears protect the eyes from irritants such as wind, smoke, and chemicals. They also help flush out random specks of dirt or any object that gets into the eye.

The last types of tears are emotional tears, which are secreted in moments of intense feeling - sometimes joy, but more often sorrow. These tears ears are produced in such large quantity that they overflow and fall down our cheeks. This type of crying occurs in response to stress, frustration, sadness, and happiness, and any other motion that evokes tears.

It has been statistically proven crying is beneficial for the health of individuals. Studies show that holding your emotions in can be dangerous over the long-term. In fact, some research indicates that stifling emotional tears can cause elevated risk of heart disease and hypertension. Other studies have shown that people suffering from such conditions as colitis or ulcers tend to have a less positive attitude about crying than their healthier counterparts. Psychologists recommend that people suffering from grief express their emotions through talking and crying, rather than keeping their emotions in check. Many studies also show that women cry 5.3 times a month, while men only cry about 1.3 times a month on an average. The reason is that men produce testosterone, which prevents them to tear up. On the other hand, women have lots of prolactin (a protein found in the body), which stimulates tears.

Tears of joy and tears of exhaustion. Tears of a clown or crocodile tears. Tears caused by chopping onions and death of a loved one. In the end, a tear is a tear, and they help protect and preserve the condition of our eyes. Crying might make your eyes red and puffy, but they won't affect your eyesight. So the next time you have the temptation to cry, go all out! 

References

Duffin. C. Why do we Cry Tears of Joy?. TMG [Online] 2014, 4.3,22-25.

Mikulak, A; Aragon, O; "Tears of Joy" May Help Us Maintain Emotional Balance. PSA. [Online] 2014, 2.1, 30-35.

Oaklander. M. The Science of Crying. TSA [Online] 2016, Version 4.2, 3-10.

Oskar, S. Why do we cry?. CPJ [Online]. 2013, Version 1. 60-69

Popova, M. The Science of Why We Cry and the Three Types of Tears. [Online] 2012,107, 4-5.

http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/02/cry.aspx

Dear Science

Originally Published: May 30, 2014

Written by: Fayza Sharif

Dear Science,

I am writing to confess to you my feelings of attraction that I had when we first met and still painfully harbor. This might come as a shock to you as first, but I can assure you that it is much more frightening for me to write these words then it is to read them. I hope you will take everything I write to heart and understand the sentiments that I will try to communicate through these lines.

Our first encounter was as memorable as Einstein's equation of relativity. We met at my house where my parents brought you over for a play date. Your concepts were a few centuries old, but that didn't stop me from feeling gravitated towards you. You were presented to me in the form of book. You whispered beautiful numbers and had me at 1+1. From then on, I was hooked. Your equations, your formulas, your logic, all of it was enamoring. I wanted to learn more, see more, and I did.

You spoke of truths about the universe, about this world, and about ourselves. You never hurt me, you never said anything mean and even if you did, there was always a good that came out it. There were times when I wanted to give up on you, to do the unimaginable, but I stuck through it, no matter how hard you played. You would nurse me when I was sick, you held an umbrella for me in the rain, you gave me energy from the glucose sent me, but most importantly, you gave me a passion that I never thought could ever be lit.

I went to summer camps, took classes and clubs with you, just so you could be in my life. I lost sleep over you because I thought about you all the time. Everything just made sense when I was with you, and nothing did without you. You were everywhere at any time and impossible to forget. My love for you grew larger and my knowledge of you expanded.

I remember the days where you talked about the ways cells formed and how the world worked. I remember the days when you talked to me about the absurd, but then I'd realize that it wasn't. I remember the days when we'd be using our MP3s all the time and then you invented the iPod for me when it eventually broke. I remember the days when you changed my life for the better with the never-ending presents you gave me. Without you, I wouldn't be the person I am today.

My feelings can never be fully transcribed on this page, but I just want you to understand that I owe a debt I don't know how to pay back. I plan to see a lot more of you in the future, where we can build more lasting memories.

A fellow scientist,
Fayza Sharif

Science, you’re hotter than a bunsen burner set to full power.

Originally Published: February 1, 2016

Written by: Adela Lam

We're like carbon and hydrogen, we bonded well from the moment we met back when I visited the Ontario Science Centre for the first time. I walked into the richly ornamented exhibits filled with strange shapes, loud noises, and well, you were the star of the show. Put on display everywhere, how could I not fall in love with you at first sight?

I love coffee. Or should I say CoFe2? Mixed in with a perfect blend of milk and C12H22O11, I was introduced to my new favourite alternative to H2O. You, my dear, opened a whole new world of treasures and invaluable experiences to me. You certainly frustrated me to no end, and I found you irresistible. You were and still are mysterious, full of secrets just waiting to be discovered.

You were and still are my caring, loving, mentor. For example, you taught me that a radioactive cat had 18 half lives, anything that didn't matter had no mass, and that the dullest element is bohrium. Plus, I still can't untangle your fascinating string theory.

As to every action there is a reaction equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Therefore, I know you also love me with the same magnitude of the love that I love you with. Our love fills all four chambers of my heart, and your overwhelming beauty is imprinted on the retina of my eyes.

Though I love you as a whole, I love one third of you the most. I love biology. Apart from being the only science where multiplication and division mean the same thing, it is the science of living things. And this is where you helped me most of all.

What am I going to do? What do I need to do in order to satisfy my wants? This was a question that bugged me every waking moment of my life. I wanted to realize what life was. And through studying you, beautiful biology, I discovered it. You showed me that biology was the study of how things live and experience. Analyzing this, I deduced that life was living and experiencing, as the experiences people and creatures go through are incredibly special and living is so much more unique than anything else.

That was the moment I realized my true passion. My passion is for living, and the study of living things. By directing myself on a path towards being able to explore the behind the scenes of life; the hidden treasures of how people and creatures are able to live, I will make myself quite happy knowing that I study what I truly am. You, biology, enable me to fulfil my unique goals and achieve treasured happiness.

Well, science, you're stuck with an overly obsessed lover. Our future looks like it is going to be filled with crazy eternal memories as an infinite set.

Your nascent biologist,
Adela Lam

Hello Love

Originally Published: May 4, 2015

Written by Yen Truong

Hello Love,

When we met, I had no idea that you would mean this much you me. I was young, naïve, and did not realize how wonderful you were. I did not appreciate all the beauty and wisdom that you shared with the world. I could not understand your complexity. I was scared to get to you know better. Your world was so different from one I had previously known.

I took a chance and let myself get lost in your world. You let me enter and allowed me to explore every detail about you. I learned about myself in ways I could have never imagined and discovered the world through a point of view unseen to me before. I was so amazed with how well you knew and understood everything. You had an idea, a theory, an explanation for almost anything and everything. You gave me a new breath of life and a reason to want to do what I am doing.

Without a doubt, my most memorable memory with you was at the Huntsman Marine Science Center in New Brunswick. After a week of being immersed in your marine environment, I knew we were a pair meant for the end. Being in Passamaquoddy Bay, I had the chance to learn so much about high tides, low tides, and everything in between. From gazing at the stars on the first night, to a 3-hour barnacle lab on the last day, you never failed to amaze me with your beauty, nor captivate me with your information. Because of this experience, I knew that we would be perfect together.

Science, I love everything about you. I love rearranging complex equations to see that it can easily be expressed with just a few terms. I love observing evolutionary changes throughout history. I even love carbon because it makes up pretty much everything. Even the things I don’t like (geology, I’m looking at you) – I love.

I have learned so much from you and I still have so much more to learn. I have no way to show my gratitude for everything you have given me. I respect all your ideas and welcome them with an open mind. However, I want to be held accountable for my own ideas and so I must have courage to engage in this field of study. I want to join you in the future, so that I can help you inspire a new generation of scientists eager to join your revolution. Learning from the great minds of the past, I want to embrace the world of science now, to lead the scientists of the future.

You mean more to me than I could ever describe in words. You are the reason for everything and the logic behind every decision I make. I am who I am because of you and for that, I will always love you.

With undying love,
Yen <3

Growing up, science, especially biology, had always interested me.

Originally Published: May 4, 2015

Written by Sarina Lalla

Growing up, science, especially biology, had always interested me. However, my science story really took off when I was 14 years old. That was the year I actually had biology as a subject for the first time, and I was in awe. The human body and its effectiveness, and the fact that it was almost like a machine fascinated me. However, more importantly, that was also the year that my mother decided that I was old enough to learn about her story.

When my mother was nineteen years old, she was diagnosed with stage 4B Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Can you imagine being in your first year of college and finding out that you have cancer? That you’ll have to spend the year in a hospital exposed to chemicals that’ll make you sick? That you’ll have to walk around your school, trying to catch up on classes you had to miss, all while having a bald head from chemotherapy that’ll make everybody stare at you? I most certainly cannot. However, my mom fought through it and stayed positive no matter what, and I admire her so much for that. However, the suffering that she endured from her cancer did not go away after she went into remission. Even today, she suffers from side effects from chemotherapy. Listening to my mother’s story, sharing her pain and knowing that there are thousands of other people in Canada that go through this and sometimes don’t survive woke me up. From that day on, I vowed to make a difference in the world of cancer through scientific research and hopefully by becoming an oncologist.

That summer, I was selected for a youth internship program at the Institut National de Recherche Scientifique where I studied a protein seen in aggressive breast cancers, Galectin-7. I studied the different transcription factors that inhibited or promoted its production with a brilliant researcher. That was definitely the experience of a lifetime for me, as it was the first time I actually got to work in a lab setting professionally, and working with cancers was unbelievable.

Since then, I have wanted to push my research further, not only for cancer, but for general human physiology. So, I decided to pursue a career in science and am currently studying Health Sciences at Cégep Gérald-Godin, where I spend 3-4 hours in a lab every week.
In terms of current projects, I have co-organized two studies on mental health over the past couple of years, and I spent last summer learning about medicine and health care by attending life-changing conferences at UC Berkeley and University of Toronto. I was exposed to a lot of hands-on experience that will be useful to me in the future. Some other projects I am organizing at the moment are looking quite bright: I will be spending this summer organizing a study on the effectiveness of blister packs versus pill bottles for adherence to prescriptions. I also intend to travel to Costa Rica for a biology research project next winter with my cégep.

I definitely haven’t forgotten about my cancer dream, though! I’ve been focusing my time on organizing and attending fundraisers for cancer research, benefitting the Canadian Cancer Society, The Cedars Cancer Institute in Montreal, and The Lymphoma and Leukemia Society of Canada. I just recently cut 10 inches of my hair to donate for wigs given to cancer patients. I have also been volunteering at the oncology clinic of my local hospital. Seeing patients with smiles on their faces even through intensive treatment just brightens my day, and I hope that one day, I contribute to finding a cure and make patients stop suffering. This one’s for you, Mom.

Considerations for scientific research

Originally Published: May 4, 2015

Written by Abeera Shahid

Scientific research is happening across the world in environments such as university labs and pharmaceutical companies. Globalization has allowed for the sharing of this research and people are now collaborating across borders. This is beneficial, as scientific research continues to be the driving force in our understanding of diseases, the environment and beyond, and any progress can make all the difference. In 2013, our country’s most popular discoveries were cancer-related. For example, 2 Ottawa researchers managed to create 2 cancer-killing, or oncolytic, viruses that block antiviral proteins in cancer cells only. This discovery may allow healthy cells to remain untouched and minimize the damage that a patient undergoes during treatment in the future. For research like this to occur, there are considerations about scientific research one must acknowledge.

1. Scientific research is dependent on funding

If you ask a professor in charge of a university lab what their time is spent on, it is surprisingly not in the lab. As one progresses in academia, there is a shift from being a bench researcher (in the lab), to being a supervisor who secures funding and who mentors graduate students. It is important to understand that money plays a large role in where research is concentrated. We no longer live in a society where research is done mainly for the purpose of understanding our surroundings. Researchers are now looking to solve or better understand complex problems such as climate change and cancer that go beyond what meets the eye.  

2. Scientific research spreads

The discovery of the vaccine by Edward Jenner, a British doctor, changed the world. In the 18^thcentury. At the time, smallpox was killing 1 in 10 children in some European countries. Obtaining immunity to this disease at the time consisted of contracting the disease and surviving it. Jenner noticed that milkmaids working with cows that would catch cowpox (a non fatal disease similar to smallpox) seemed to be immune to smallpox itself. He then decided to try and ‘transfer’ their immunity to others. He took the fluid from a milk maiden’s cowpox sores. He then cut a young boy’s arms and inserted the fluid into his body. After a couple of days, he exposed the boy to smallpox and discovered that he was immune. This technique is referred to as the first vaccination. The concept of vaccinations is now prominent throughout the world and it shows that over time, scientific research has been able to cross borders, and more so with the development of technology.

3. Techniques and methods across fields are connected

A polymerase chain reaction machine is able to amplify a small DNA sample for research use. You will find this machine in labs around the world and it serves as a tool in many different fields. You will see it in genetics labs, but also lipid, protein, and many other types of labs. The lesson to be learned is that researchers use the same techniques for different purposes throughout the world. This makes it possible for researchers to switch to a similar field that isn't necessarily tied to the topic they study. Hence, research does not put people in boxes but allows for flexibility and collaboration.

4. Time and failure are research’s best friends

The general population gets excited when they hear about a discovery made on the molecular level of a disease such as cancer. However, transferring research from the lab to application requires time and is challenging. Failure is something researchers encounter on a daily basis and it inevitably influences the time it takes for discoveries to be made.  
These are some considerations to keep in mind when viewing the world of research. You will learn more by being involved and as you speak to people in the field.  

Scientific research is an area that will continue to play a role in Canada and around the world. Where will it take you?

My Love Letter to you, Science

Originally Published: May 4, 2015

Written by Andy Ou

My Love Letter to you, Science

Life would be very boring and uninteresting without science. It is science that gives us inspiration and motivation to discover more about life and matters around us. It provokes our human’s curiosity and encourages us to discover more secrets and mysteries behind every problem that humans have encountered in life.

When I was around 7 years old, I wrote, “I want to be a CEO” on a sheet of paper and showed it to my parents. Honestly, I did not even know what a CEO was and what the acronym stood for. After one year, I told them that I want to be a writer because I love to write short stories to express my internal feelings. They were very disappointed after hearing the news. After another year, I lost interest in becoming a writer and a CEO. I realized that I did not know what to do with life anymore. However, it was science that began to change my life. In grade 5, I won a science fair contest! I was so delighted and proud of myself. After that school year, I said, “I love science”. It may sound naïve and childish, but surprisingly, I have carried that dream all the way to high school and now to my undergrad years up ahead. Since I was little like a teddy bear, I have had a dream that someday I will work in a lab with my team and professors and discover something that is outstanding and unbelievable.

In grade 9, I have asked the question, “What is biology etc.?” I found out that it is the study of life. Then, I asked myself, “What is life and what is the purpose of it?” In the animal kingdom, the purpose of life is to reproduce and continue on the generation by passing on genetics, which are known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), to their offspring. After grade 10, I asked a lot more scientific questions like, “How does the brain work?” and it led me to more “what if” questions. I became very inquisitive and curious.

After four years of high school, I have truly fallen in love with science. I love biology so much that I treat it like a friend of mine. Everyday, when I encounter something interesting, I would try to incorporate science. Later on, I start making connections between our everyday life and science. During my free time, when I am extremely bored, I often start thinking about random things to integrate science. For example, I wrote:

“I love you, but we are too young to make such a decision since our frontal lobes are not fully developed. “

“The distance between us is actually zero, where our hearts collide.”

“We follow the same heartbeat and pattern. Our trig functions match perfectly together.”

“The bond between us is stronger than any bond that exists in the chemistry world.”

This may sound cheesy and weird, but it feels amazing writing these phrases and anyone can actually use them as love phrases.

Therefore, I have decided to continue my journey of pursuing my dream to become a doctor or a scientist to make the world a better place and a true difference in other people’s lives. Science is the reason, I decided to pursue my postsecondary education in McGill University, where I can continue learning more about science and its outstanding researches. In the end, it is science that gives us, humans, curiosity and the true meaning of existing in this world or perhaps, I should say universe.

Your sciencekiddo,
Andy Ou

Dear Science

Originally Published: May 4, 2015

Written by Aaron Pan

Dear Science,

I remember our first meeting; it was in grade 4, and you had given me an implant of a fossil. Ever since that day, I’ve known that you are the one I’ve been waiting for.

Our journey together has taken us farther than I ever imagined. You have shown me everything from the Great Red Spot on Jupiter to a hydrochloric acid-sodium hydroxide titration. Science, you have shown me the world, and beyond.

Science, you are honestly the best thing ever. I have never valued anything so much. I found you because you are one I can use to share my deepest thoughts, my biggest worries, and all my excitement. Every time I write my lab reports, I dedicate it to science, the science that is around me, and the science I perform.

Every moment with you is filled with joy and fulfillment. Thank you for everything that you have done for me; I know I act like I don’t really care, but deep inside I am melting of your sweetness. Me and you, you and me, we together form real chemistry. You have inspired me to become a better person; you have taught me the importance of responsibility. I have become aware of the environmental impacts of my every move, and I will make every effort to minimize this. You have shown me a world from a new perspective, a microscopic perspective, where in which empty space is sparsely filled with tiny electrons, protons, and neutrons. I will never forget how empty this universe really is; I will never forget how little probability there is for me to find matter, the matter of science.

I work hard to be able to stay with you. The long nights of solving physics equations, filled with propagating uncertainties and making insignificant assumptions. But I know you are worth it, because you have shown me the courage to pursuit my dream, and make a positive impact for myself and others in the future. Every joule I put into my work gets efficiently transferred to do work in you.

Science, I love you so much, and I appreciate that I have you in my life. I know we have reactions of ups and downs, but we will always find the energy to continue moving up. Don’t worry, Science, I would never cheat on you, not even on Math. You know it too!

Your True Love,
Aaron Pan

P.S. Take me travelling this summer, to a black hole, so that we can be together as one forever.

Who is a researcher?

Originally Published: January 12, 2015

Written by Arjun Pandey
Edited by Sarina Lalla and Abeera Shahid

Because of the broad nature of scientific research, the definition of a researcher is open-ended. A scientific researcher is considered to be anyone who attempts to improve our understanding of science often by building upon research done by others. There are three primary types of researchers: amateur researchers, university researchers, and private/company-based researchers.

Amateur researchers are ordinary, everyday people, with no qualifications or degrees, who attempt to broaden the horizons of science by conducting research. Individuals as young as 11 or 12, who participate in local science fairs are examples of this type of researcher.
University-based and company-based researchers are considered to be professional ones, and typically have degrees in the subject area of their research. To become a professional researcher, one usually needs a bachelor’s degree, a master’s degree, and a PhD. A bachelor’s degree commonly takes 4 years to earn, a master’s degree takes an additional two years, and a PhD can take another 4-5 years after that. A bachelor’s or master’s degree will typically suffice for company-based researchers, while senior company positions and university researchers require a PhD.

A university researcher is an individual who receives grants and is funded by a university to do scientific research. This type of researcher has more freedom and flexibility because they do research based on what they think is important. A company-based researcher on the other hand is someone who is employed by a private corporation to investigate scientific fields for often the purpose of profit. At companies such as The Berma Research Group, researchers have a set focus and deadlines.

It is important to remember that these three types of researchers will make a difference in the world of science, and depending who you are and what environment you want to work in, you can pick which branch you prefer. This is one of the many reasons that research is so diverse, but every research helps science move a step forward, no matter what.

Research: The Essentials

Originally Published: January 12, 2015

Written by Arjun Pandey
Edited by Abeera Shahid and Sarina Lalla

Please note that this piece is first in a series of blogs intended to introduce students to the area of research. They reflect the opinions of student researchers and not necessarily of the Foundation for Student Science and Technology.

As humans, we have an inherent desire to understand the world around us. Why are we here? Why is everything the way it is? Where did we come from? Where are we headed? These questions have profound implications and no sole answer, but they challenge us to try and understand the world we live in.  Through the use of research, people around the world attempt to explore the answers to complex questions, to solve challenging problems and ultimately to broaden our view of the world.

Research is defined as a method to explain, process, and analyze an observed phenomenon. Scientific research often consists of these components (not necessarily in this order):

1. An observation is made.
2. A question is asked.
3. Based on the prior research of others, a hypothesis, or educated guess of the answer is made.
4. The hypothesis is tested through a scientific experiment.
5. Experiments are repeated to ensure their validity, because any one result is not an accurate representation of reality.
6. The results of the experiment(s) are compiled and analyzed.
7. Explanations, and rationales to explain the outcomes of the experiment are developed, and then tested through future research.

The description above is often referred to as the scientific method. Is that all research is? Definitely not! The scientific method is often taught to students from a young age as a rigid structure one must follow to be a scientist. This assumption is flawed as scientific research can be very flexible and open ended. There are scientists who may follow this method but steps may not be followed in order or may be repeated. For example, one can design an experiment where the answer cannot be predicted and have it result in failure. Then the researcher may go back to change the question they were asking and it might lead to an observation that allows them to create a hypothesis. The takeaway is that there is no one method to research, but asking questions and making observations are important parts of the process.

Ultimately, scientific research is for those of us who are curious about the world around us and want to play an active role in understanding it. Research conducted at universities and companies impacts all individuals in society and hence, it is essential that we all are aware of the field. So what are you waiting for? Start your journey in the area of research today, all you need is a lightbulb! 

My Love Letter to Science: Confessions of a Compulsive Adulteress

Originally Published: October 30, 2014

By Alicia Lang

I have a confession to make.

First, I am not the devoted science junkie you think I am. I hate to admit it. I would pass over a glowing-blue, banana-scented test tube for a bag of warm, fudge-filled, melt-on-your tongue brownies any day. I love art, history, music and literature. I love what you would condemn as the vanities of life - you shouldn’t. Indeed, my love for you, too, stemmed from those legends of great kings and emperors seeking the fabled Fountain of Youth.

At age 12, you proposed to me, proposed that aging was the macroscopic product of error accumulation on the various biological levels. I was ecstatic, initially from utter relief that the Fountain of Youth would remain mere legend, but later, too, because I liked that idea of inevitable downfall, to keep the ever-present human ego in check; Alexander the Great could conquer as many kingdoms as he liked, but would never be able to conquer the ageing man he saw in the mirror.

Second, I am violent. I enjoy smashing your atoms apart, and uncovering, in the process, the beginnings of the universe. I enjoy putting them back together again, in symmetry, because in the eyes of a scientist, symmetry is beauty. Symmetry, in this case, is also the Standard Model. Part of what can perhaps be called the most successful theory of all time - quantum theory - it is hinged, nonetheless, upon a philosophical foundation of sand.

And lastly, I am not a genius. My eyes often ache from your dense texts riddled with jargon and equations. I conceive of Newtonian dynamics in terms of spheres and cannonballs. I make sense of relativity through cartoon clocks and spaceships. At the most abstract level, I actually do think of string theory in terms of the interactions between strings.

But at the end of the day, when I look at my laptop only to see minuscule electrons defying the laws of common sense, I cannot help but chuckle at your romantic jests.

With due love,
Schrodinger’s Cat

P.S. In all seriousness, many people in developed nations today undervalue science as the engine of their prosperity, and largely identify with my sentiments as the compulsive adulteress. It is instead those in emerging nations who truly embrace science for what it is: the LOVE of their lives.

Pathology : The Answer To Life And Death

Originally Published: August 21, 2014

By: Sarina Lalla

Pathology. While many of us may have heard such a term on shows such as CSI, for when a body at a crime scene needs to be examined through autopsy, how many of us really know what exactly it means?

Pathology is the study of any manifestations of illness or foul play that can touch an organ or any anatomical element. Simply put, let’s just say that there is a patient that either 1) has an illness or 2) is dead and we would like to know why. Pathology is a science that has the answers. How, you may ask? There are many steps that must be followed before the mysteries can be solved.

First of all, anything that passes through a pathology lab is referred to as a specimen. Specimens vary in size, as they can come from any part of the body. Heck, they can even be the whole body. These specimens come from clinics and hospitals, usually the ones closest to the pathology lab itself. Pathology labs are even usually part of some hospitals, which is more efficient : any specimen, which is unique and irreplaceable (ex. if the specimen’s a gallbladder, we only have one), can be analyzed without leaving the hospital.

So, the specimens are brought to the autopsy/biopsy room, where they are soaked in formalin. This disinfects them all while helping them maintain their form. Depending on the size of the specimen, it will soak in formalin from a couple of hours to a few days.
After that process, the specimens are examined by technicians and pathologists. The latter must make a gross description of the specimen (shape, consistency, presence of anomalys, cysts, tumors, etc) by making specific cuts through them and extracting pieces of tissue.
After the description is made, the pieces of tissue (which very much look like meat) are placed in small cassettes. Once all of the cassettes have been numbered, registered, and closed, they are placed in a machine that coats them in paraffin, or wax. Once they have become blocks of wax, they go through a histology lab, where a knife slices the blocks in strips of a micrometric thickness. These strips are then placed on microscope slides and, with the help of many chemicals, are colored and stuck to the slides.

Once these slides are finished, they are sent back to the pathologists, who must look at them through a microscope to see any microscopic abnormalities or pathogens. They then write anything that they notice and these notes, along with the gross desciption made initially, are sent to the doctors for a final diagnosis and to deliver the information to the patients.
In the case of an autopsy, a full body investigation, this series of steps is done on each organ that is deemed important to examine, like the heart, the brain, the kidneys, and the lungs. The patient is cut open very carefully so not to be too damaged (as many families like to have an open casket).

As an administrative agent working in a pathology lab this summer, I have seen some pretty amazing cases. Every day, there is something different to see : from ovarian cysts the size of beach balls with hair and teeth on them (!) to horseshoe kidneys (kidneys fused together) there is never a dull moment. And I have learned so much along the way, anatomically and in terms of diseases as well. So next time you get your tonsils removed, your wisdom teeth, that suspicious mole, at least you know where it goes now and why the results take some time before coming back!

STEM Journey

Originally Published: August 19, 2014

By: Osman Sharif

“Do you want to change the world...?”

I was taken aback, bewildered, spaced out... being asked if I wanted to change the world, if I wanted to be that very person that sparked a light of innovation in life. I was at a loss of words. As my life was always restricted to school and friends, things like making change and a difference was never part of my vocabulary. I was always preoccupied at my own life; I never gave a moment’s glance at others... until I reached high school.

Karate lessons, swimming, leisurely biking, playing basketball or reading classic books, nothing compared to the love I shared for science. Grade Nine is where I formed a passion for the workings of the world-- a world where a heartbeat is more complex than words alone to describe, a world where millions of organisms smaller than the naked eye can detect living in unison for the benefit of mankind and a world where one must die in order to understand the true nature of death. Science is itself unexplainable. With so many discoveries yet to be found, I was overwhelmed with the endless possibilities yet to be unraveled.

The words were echoed through my mind louder and louder. I understand what it meant to change. Changing the world is not a superhuman task only targeted for the ones endowed with prophet hood or intelligence. Any man has the ability to make a difference, not only because of his brilliant plans and strategic executions; however, it is the motive, a calling from within. I wanted to be that difference.

As I advanced throughout the years, I learned more and more about the recent advances about cancer. I attended stem cells lectures and researched on my own about the very nature of cancer. I became more and more interested to find a solution not only for cancer, but for AIDS, Schizophrenia, and Congophilic Angiopathy-- any disease yet to cured.
I fully grasped the meaning of the word “change” and realized that I wanted to be that difference in humanity--a change of innovation, a benefit for humanity, a legacy that will be remembered throughout the ages. Science is a continuous process, not a body of knowledge. It is continuously striving through thought and reason which is in short supply nowadays. By continually learning the subject I hold dear, I want to show the world and the people within the greatest innovator that ever walked this earth where the past, the present and the future gasp at my very name: Osman Sharif.

“The secret of change is to focus all of your energy, not on fighting the old, but building the new” –Socrates

Diversification in STEM

Originally Published: July 23, 2014

By: Munaza Saleem

Within the Canadian education system, students as young as the age of fifteen are enquired as to what career path they may take and even their future field of specialization. Our education begins to take us on a series of concentrated interests throughout high school and eventually university, where we begin to focus on an even more miniscule field of research. Perhaps this research involves obtaining knowledge from related subjects, but this study whether it be STEM related or not is albeit directed towards a highly centred discipline. The question arises as to whether we as a society are losing sight of our need of diversification in order to advance our development in science, technology, engineering, and math.

A similar issue that surfaces is whether students should enter micro specializations at earlier ages to see if they become more experienced in their field of choice. Ultimately, a more focussed research from an individual in STEM related subjects at these early ages can lead to more experience in the field as they began at a younger age, and arguably supply a greater contribution in the area of interest. However, scientists and engineers alike may agree that having a background in other subjects can also be an active factor in advancing your own methods and techniques within your line of work.

Various backgrounds of knowledge may contribute to a certain focus on research or discovery. This is exemplified among many notable polymaths such as the philosopher Avicenna, who was titled the Father of Modern Medicine but was also a poet, astronomer, mathematician, and geologist. Similarly, Isaac Newton was not only a physicist but a mathematician, astronomer, chemist, and theologist. These polymaths used their knowledge in multiple fields of study to eventually achieve their most remarkable contributions in society.

In due course, not only does a wider background in various subjects increase your knowledge, but educational institutions and employers are seeking students and employees that have skills and attributes that go beyond the breadth of the classroom, lab, or research facility. The competitive advantage that adds to your ability to be informed of information within other fields exemplifies your personal diversification of interests.

As a student who has obtained experience in fields ranging from science to visual arts to business, my experience in each of these fields commonly intertwine as a daily occurrence. Each supplies to the knowledge of the other and the breadth of information and amount of people in backgrounds that you meet would not have occurred had I not found an interest in a wide range of subjects. While micro specializing in a certain field may have allowed me to focus on one particular subject, the amount of background understanding would not have been possible without being involved with various other pursuits.